_Late winter and early spring are the best times of year to prune fruit trees. Pruning before spring bud break allows the tree to send energy and growth to the branches that you choose with selective pruning. If you wait until the tree is actively growing you waste some of the tree's energy resources and increase the chance of harmful pests and disease invading through the wounds that pruning creates.

Fruit trees in the home garden grow best when they are pruned and trained while young. Proper pruning results in a stronger, healthier tree with the potential for more and bigger fruit. When done correctly, older trees will need almost no pruning as they produce an abundance of fruit in later years.

_Many trees that gardeners purchase arrive as bare-root "whips" with few or no side branches. These small, spindly specimens resemble a stick with just a few roots at a twisted base to identify it as a tree. After planting according to appropriate instructions, prune the top of the whip about three feet (one meter) above the soil line. Make your pruning cut about 1/4 inch (.6 centimeters) above an obvious bud. This helps to promote growth of new branches in the first year.

If you plant a container-grown tree, try to keep as many branches as possible in the first year. Only cut off twigs and branches that are obviously dead or broken. Even weak and small branches will produce leaves that will help increase root development.

In the second year, after becoming established, you can begin to remove branches to help the tree achieve maximum growth. The idea is to train your tree by keeping branches that are strong, healthy, and well-spaced for even growth. Remove branches that are interfering with others, that are broken, and that are poorly or unevenly spaced.

_Look for multiple branches that are all emerging from the same spot on the trunk. If left to grow they will create a weak point. By removing all but one or maybe two of these branches you are increasing the tree's structure and strength.

_Look for branches that emerge from the trunk at a sharp angle; the ones that are growing nearly vertically, close to the trunk. These branches will grow into weak limbs that can break easily in later years. You want to remove them and keep the other branches that angle out evenly.

In the second year I'll keep extra branches on some whips, even if they aren't perfectly spaced. If you remove too many branches too soon, you affect root development and that results in a weaker tree.

In the third year continue removing the interfering and multiple branches. Remove weak and broken ones. You'll probably begin seeing "suckers", the branches that emerge close to the base of the tree at ground level. Prune all the suckers. They have no benefit and will rob the tree of nutrients.

_The third year is also when you can usually begin to develop the shape of your future fruit tree. It's important to remember that branches never grow up with the tree. A branch that is two feet above the soil will always be two feet above the soil. If you want a tree with a nice spot for climbing or sitting, anticipate the appropriate height and prune accordingly.

My fruit trees are at this point and I've pruned off many of the lower branches. They are beginning to look like trees and I'm beginning to visualize where I want the base branches to be in the future. With my harsh winters I don't want to get too aggressive too early in the life of the tree. I'll keep options available by keeping branches unpruned three and four feet high. I know the branches below that aren't needed so they can go.

_For all pruning cuts I look for the bark ridge and branch collar. When you look closely where the branch grows out from the trunk you'll see wrinkled bark at the top of the crotch; that's the bark ridge. The base of the branch is broader and more bulbous, almost like shoulders; that's the collar. Cuts should be just outside the collar, not cutting into either the bark ridge or collar. The cut will be at an angle to the vertical trunk. That allows the tree trunk to grow around the cut, sealing it and protecting the tree from future damage or disease.

_Never make a flush cut, right against the trunk. It may look look like it's right and is recommended by some arborists and "experts", but it can severely impact the tree. The cells that grow into a protective barrier are located in the branch collar. If you cut into the collar or through it, the tree can't grow properly to seal the cut. You've created a wound that is open to disease organisms and to insect pests.

You don't need wound dressing either. When pruned correctly, the cut will begin healing soon. Applying paint or dressing offers no benefit and can aid disease organisms by giving them protective cover. Just leave the the cut alone to heal naturally.

Remember one of the primary reasons for pruning in late winter or early spring is to reduce the chance that harmful organisms are present. As soon as the tree springs to life with warming weather, pruning cuts will begin to heal along with the new green growth.

By focusing on correct pruning when fruit trees are young you save yourself effort and worry compared to when the trees are older. It's much easier to remove a branch that is only half an inch (1.3 centimeters) thick than it is to deal with it when it is four inches (10 cm) wide. If you allow weak branches to grow, they can break under the weight of heavy fruit or snow, possibly endangering the life if the entire tree.

Once you begin to regularly prune, it becomes a quick activity. Major sculpting and forming of the tree's shape is done early when branches are small and easy to cut. Each subsequent year you only need to remove branches that are broken, dying, or have a problem. For half a dozen fruit trees the yearly pruning can be completed in about an hour.

I look forward to my annual pruning. Throughout the year I observe how the trees are growing and try to visualize their future shape. When they are dormant, with leaves gone, I can accurately see which branches will best suit the desired growth and prune accordingly. With each new season's growth I analyze and critique my decision and modify the next year's pruning as needed.

A healthy and well-shaped fruit tree will enhance any home garden. It just takes a little effort and foresight to give you a strong chance of success.

For more information about pruning trees, particularly older trees, see my article "Trees Like Prunes."
 

_Yesterday, the U.S. Department of Agriculture released a new version of the Plant Hardiness Zone Map. This is the first revision of the map since 1990. The new version includes 13 zones, two more than before. Much of the United States is now one half-zone warmer.

_The new map reflects an increase in the average temperature of the U.S. in recent decades. The 1990 map used average annual temperatures from 1974 to 1986 while the new map uses information from 1976 to 2005.
 
For the first time, the influence of factors like elevation, prevailing winds, large bodies of water, terrain, and city heat island effects are included in calculations. I've written previously about how these aspects can affect specific regions, cities, and gardens. New algorithms and more sophisticated mapping methods now account for those effects. The Associated Press points out that American cities that include St. Louis, Des Moines, Honolulu, and Fairbanks, Alaska, are now in warmer Plant Hardiness Zones.

The map changes mean that, generally, the coldest winter day isn't as cold as in the past. Relatively mild winters of the last two decades now allow some plants to grow in areas previously considered off limits.

You can expect that seed packets and gardening advisers will soon change and use the new data for recommending what plants can grow where. Burpee will include the new map on next year's seed packets. Gardening catalogs will identify which plants are suitable for the warmer zones.

It's important that I point out that the Plant Hardiness Map should only be used as a guide for planting.
 
Climate can still vary dramatically within zones, even the new ones. While some mountain areas are now in a cooler zone, a review of the new zone map still has my neighborhood in the same zone as before, 5b.  This doesn't adequately account for the terrain and altitude differences that my neighbors and I encounter. My garden is fully 1,000 feet higher than the city 15 miles away, also zone 5b. I'm surrounded by forest. I have inches of snow and ice still on the ground from our first major winter storm well over a month ago; the city lost its snow covering the first day after the storm.

Every gardener should learn about the individual characteristics of their region and garden. Knowing your Plant Hardiness Zone is important. It will help you choose seeds and plants, but it is only one part of gardening planning.

Get to know your garden. Just because the USDA says you're in a new zone it doesn't mean everything has changed. The Hardiness Zone Map is based on averages, average low temperatures. The averages may be warmer, but extreme low temperatures can still be possible. Caution should still be practiced when choosing plants that are barely suitable for your zone, old or new.

The new map is more accurate than previous versions and gardeners have a new tool as we confront climate change. Like the rest of our gardening tools it is appropriate only for its intended purpose.
 
If you haven't had success with a particular plant, a new zone number probably won't change that. If you want to seek out new plants a new zone number may give you new options, but it is only a guideline.

I accept the new map with anticipation. Many gardeners in many places will try new things and that is a great idea. Entire regions are more accurately assessed. Yet even though most of us feel like our neighborhood is warmer, experience is a harsh steward. I'll continue to recommend that gardeners, particularly in challenging zones like mine, choose plants that are best suited for success.

It only takes one or two days of historical low temperatures to wipe out plantings that should expect to survive the new zone identifications. If you live in an area of surprise temperature extremes, it's better to opt for plants a zone lower than yours -- planting 4b plants when you live in 5b -- than trying to recover from winter kill.

Of course, microclimates, cold frames, hoop houses, and other season extenders will all provide the extra protection that you may need for plants challenged by temperature. If you're going to try new plants that may be questionable consider one of these aids. Check out some of my other articles on those subjects for more assistance.

For now enjoy better information and access. The new USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map has an improved online interface. Easier than in the past, you only need to enter your zip code for an instant zone report. A click of your mouse will bring up your color-coded state map.

Try it at:

http://planthardiness.ars.usda.gov/PHZMWeb/

  

_Twenty-five. I've received seed, bulb, and gardening catalogs from 25 different companies in the last month. A few of them want my business so much that they sent me more than one copy. While receiving colorful catalogs almost daily and enjoying the radiant pictures of spring and summer growth are wonderful activities during the cold, heart of winter, it can be daunting to actually begin the process of ordering garden products.

_There was a time when only a few gardening catalogs would arrive in my mail. It was relatively easy to pick a few seeds to try and then place a small order. As both my garden and gardening knowledge expanded, so did the amount of the purchases. As the purchases increased, so did the interest in me by the gardening companies. They had a fish on the line and didn't want to lose it.

I don't know the percentage of how many catalogs sent to an average household actually result in a seed or plant purchase, but I imagine it's low. I can't possibly order from all 25 companies. I'll probably stick with four that I have experience with and maybe try a new one. That means for me, a good customer, 80 percent of the catalogs are wasted paper.

So how does one choose which catalogs are worth the time and effort? Much of it is trial and error. If you receive many seed catalogs you can place them side by side and compare what they offer. If you're lucky you have someone who can make a recommendation. Ultimately it comes down to personal preference.

Many years ago I only received one or two catalogs each year. Typically they were from Gurney's Seed & Nursery Co. or Burgess Seed & Plant Co. The first hails from Indiana, the second from Illinois. From the many catalogs I received from them over the years I gather that they are very big operations with a very large budget for mass mailings. They are low budget providers of gardening products. Naturally I ordered from both because I had few other choices.

Gurney's has a good selection of many different seeds. I've ordered bare-root fruit trees from them on different occasions and have had relatively good results. Last year one of the fruit trees I ordered failed to awaken from dormancy. Whether it was dead on arrival or succumbed from my cold weather, Gurney's faithfully agreed to replace it in this year's shipment.

I no longer order from Burgess because of a very bad experience. Virtually an entire order of live plants was wasted. Poor packaging and shipping methods delivered me many damaged, dead, or dying plant specimens in my first order. Thankfully I didn't pay much for the experience, but I haven't ordered anything from them since. That hasn't stopped them from sending four or five catalogs every year. I had a similar experience with K. Van Bourgondien & Sons, a bulb company that I no longer order from either.

On the other end of the spectrum, High Country Gardens gave me one of the best mail order experiences I've had. Their innovative packaging system virtually ensures that every live plant arrives in the best possible condition. The higher price reflects the extra attention, but it is worth it to get a plant that may not be available at a local nursery. They take pride in their products and it shows. I've visited their nursery in Santa Fe, New Mexico, and it was a great gardener's adventure. Interestingly, some of their plants can only be obtained through the catalog.

Last year I did a lot of my seed ordering with Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds and Territorial Seed Company. Baker Creek has my favorite catalog, true gardening porn. The pictures explode with color and life and the book format would brighten up any coffee table. Their selection of seeds is incredible and I was very satisfied with what I received.  Territorial Seed has a much simpler catalog, but no less incredible offerings. Both catalogs do a great job describing the plants that the seeds produce. Between the two I prefer Territorial's seed packets; they are more specialized and do a better job explaining proper planting methods.

_I also ordered a number of seeds from Burpee last year. Burpee is a big, famous seed company with great selection and good prices. They also sell in many retail locations, but I've found the online prices are much better than the cardboard displays in big box stores. Their catalog is big and glossy, but nothing special.

This year some new catalogs caught my eye and interest. R.H. Shumway's Illustrated Garden Guide offers black and white pencil drawings that hearken back to a simpler time in gardening. Similarly, John Scheepers Kitchen Garden Seeds also bypasses stock garden photos for pencil art in a sage green shade. Peaceful Valley Farm & Garden Supply offers pencil drawings that are colored in to display the vegetable or flower in true form. They all have unique offerings and good descriptions of the plants. I admit I prefer an artistic catalog to ones with amateurish photos. I may have to place small orders with these companies to see how good the seed packets are.

For most of us seed and plant selection comes down to price. The fanciful artwork or glossy format of the catalog may grab our attention, but the price is what tempts us to buy in the absence of any other knowledge or experience. So how do different catalogs compare?

Let's begin with sweet corn:

Gurney's offers a packet (250 seeds, about 2 ozs) of "Kandy Korn" for $4.99
Jung Seeds & Plants offers a packet (1 oz) of "Kandy Korn" for $2.35
R.H. Shumway's offers a packet (1 oz) of "Kandy Korn" for $2.35
Territorial Seed Company offers a packet (2 ozs) of "Kandy Korn" for $4.00

So let's analyze the data. An ounce of sweet corn provides about 125 seeds and each company is relatively close in price. In order of value per ounce are: Territorial ($2.00), R.H. Shumway ($2.35), Jung ($2.35), and Gurney's ($2.50). Maybe Gurney's costs more to pay for the many catalogs they distribute. Smaller, more specialized seed companies tend to offer better value in my experience.

Let's look at tomato seeds:

Baker Creek offers a packet (25 seeds) of "Brandywine" for $2.25
Burpee offers a packet (50 seeds) of "Brandywine" for $3.95
Gurney's offers a packet (30 seeds) of "Brandywine for $2.49
Territorial offers a packet (40 seeds) of "Brandywine" for $3.05
Totally Tomatoes offers a packet (30 seeds) of "Brandywine" for $2.10

The order of value for these seeds is: Totally Tomatoes, Territorial, Burpee, Gurney's, Baker Creek. It's not a great surprise that the company that specializes in tomato seeds has the best price for a packet of tomato seeds or that the company with the flashiest catalog is the most expensive. Ultimately they're all within a penny of cost per seed. As you might expect, companies that offer seed in bulk can provide bigger savings. Totally Tomatoes offers "Brandywine" for less than three cents per seed if you want a few hundred of them and Territorial Seed cuts that price almost in half for bulk purchase.

This raises the important issue of seed quantity. Though Burpee offers a better price per seed than Baker Creek in the example above, you may not need 50 seeds. For most home gardeners 25 tomato seeds is more than enough and Totally Tomatoes' bargain per-seed price, and lowest packet price, is even more of an incentive to order from them. The same with the first example. Territorial offers the best value for sweet corn seeds, but do you really need 500 seeds? Buying one of the $2.35 packets may make more sense.

So why pay more? I chose the examples above because they represent common, popular seed choices. For many gardeners, myself included, buying unique or special seeds trumps price and many catalogs specialize in being unique and special. In some cases you may be able to find a specific seed in only one catalog.
 
R.H Shumway offers "Luffa Sponge" seeds; I haven't noticed them any place else. Baker Creek sells squash seeds for fruit that looks like it came from another planet. They only sell heirloom seeds too; that means you can save the seeds from any of the plants you grow and replicate the same plant year after year. Seeds of Change sells 100% organic seeds, including purple tomatillos.

Finding a special seed that interests you may make a catalog your new favorite. Ordering just one packet is hard to do, so adding extra packets of seeds helps fill out an order. That may explain why some of the specialty catalogs above charge a little bit more for common seeds. They hook you with the unique offering and soak your wallet for stuff you can get elsewhere for less. You pay for the convenience of a single purchase.

If you're only interested in common seeds compare prices and order appropriately. For the most part, a "Brandywine" seed should produce the same plant regardless of the source company. Live plants are a little different. Receiving the plant in good condition should be more important than saving a few pennies.

Look for coupons and gifts too. Gurney's is notorious (or famous) for offering up to 50 percent off the price if you order early. Many companies will throw in an extra plant or seed packet with orders. With these extras a higher price per seed packet can quickly be a better value overall. If you become a customer, some companies will give you a code or coupon for savings next year; they want you to come back.

I recommend placing orders from at least one catalog that you haven't used before. You may be very pleased with the results. At the least you'll get placed on a list that should guarantee a five-fold increase in the number of catalogs you receive next year.

Nothing beats walking through a nursery and experiencing live plants. If you can, buy your plants this way. Not only does it support local business, but it helps you see what you're buying. Even the best nurseries have few choices beyond favorite and common plants, so for better selection and for cost savings consider buying from catalogs.

When you find a company you like, keep buying and spread the good news. For me, Territorial Seed is the best overall. Great price, great selection, and superior planting information. They're also one of the simplest and plain catalogs. I'll keep buying from them.

That's not to say they get all of my business. As good as they are, they don't carry every seed I'm interested in. So I'll order from other companies as needed. And I'll keep getting catalogs to wile away the winter day.

I must point out that I've received no payment, fee or reward from any of the companies mentioned in this article. All of this information is from my own experience.

Use these links to order a catalog:

Baker Creek Heirloom Seeds                  www.rareseeds.com
Burpee                                                     www.burpee.com
Gurney's Seed & Nursery Co.                 www.gurneys.com
John Scheepers Kitchen Garden Seeds   www.kitchengardenseeds.com
Jung Seeds & Plants                                www.jungseed.com
Peaceful Valley Farm & Garden Supply  www.groworganic.com
R.H. Shumway's                                      www.rhshumway.com
Seeds of Change                                      www.seedsofchange.com
Territorial Seed Company                       www.territorialseed.com
Totally Tomatoes                                     www.totallytomato.com

_It's tough being a plant during crazy weather patterns. Almost every location on the planet seems to be experiencing abnormal temperature variations while people and animals are left wondering what's going on. Even the Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station recently set an all-time high temperature reading of 9.9F degrees (-12.27C). As confused as humans get when we try to decide if we should grab a sweater or jacket or just brave the day in shirtsleeves, plants have no way to make similar decisions when confronting the same situations.

Most perennial plants and trees and shrubs are genetically wired to respond to warming temperatures. When a trend of ever-increasing daily temperatures is registered, it usually means that spring has arrived. That means it's time to wake up, time to open up the sleeping buds, time to sprout forth green growth. Plants react to the changes with no reference to a calendar.

When the warming trend is a fluke, the plant can suffer. Recently I enjoyed a week-long period of temperatures more than 20F degrees above average. December should give me days in the 40s (4C). Instead I enjoyed days in the 60s (16C). This winter has been relatively mild and many sections of my lawn are still green, even under the snow. With this trend of unusual warmth it's important to remember the rest of my landscape.

While it's not unusual for some non-evergreen perennial plants to have evergreen parts, my daisies have kept more green leaves at their core than I remember in recent years. They're ready to grow.

_Many of my herbs are still alive with some new green at the base of my thyme and mint.

When I take a close look at my young fruit trees, it appears that some of the buds are beginning to swell, a sign that maybe they are receiving extra energy from the tree in anticipation of leaf growth. On some of the branches some buds already sprouted little leaves. The tree is confused, "thinking" that spring has arrived.

_It's usually a great sign when new growth appears. We herald the return of spring. But for me it's early January, the heart of winter. While yesterday was another warm day, this morning welcomed us with blowing snow and a high that will be 20 degrees colder, and below freezing.

We can put on another layer of clothes and a warmer jacket. Plants have no such recourse. The tiny hope of new leaves on my apple tree will succumb to the cold. If not tonight when the low temperature is expected to drop near 0F (-18C), then soon when the lows will probably sink lower than that.

Daisy leaves can handle temperatures well below freezing, but if they're is exposed to historical lows in my area that can still hit -30F (-34C), they'll suffer.

Freezing temperatures below what a plant is designed to handle will kill new growth. The Daisy leaves won't survive to provide life-sustaining nutrients when the plant is ready to send up flower stalks. My herbs will shrivel. The awakened apple tree buds won't grow into strong new branches or tasty fruit.
 
The entire plant may not be killed in these conditions, but it can be damaged. Bushes and shrubs won't produce as many branches or flowers. Trees may lose the important buds that control their central trunk growth, resulting in new branch forks and ultimately reduced strength. Perennials can be stunted with less foliage and fewer flowers during the prime growing season. Fruit canes and trees may not bear at all.

There are a few things you can do if you're encountering the same conditions as I. Just as we appreciate a warm coat on a cold night, some plants can be saved by giving them a blanket. If you have new growth on a low-lying plant and are expecting frigid weather, cover it with a wool blanket or a tarp during the day before the low temperatures hit; you may be able to trap enough heat to give it a fighting chance. Surround and cover plants with a thick layer of straw. If you're lucky enough to have snow, leave it in place around your plants. Snow will keep the temperature near the freezing point, but that may be well above the colder air temperatures that can kill new growth.

_For trees and larger plants that can't be covered, expect repercussions from excessive warm-cold weather cycles. Don't be surprised when there are fewer leaves to produce shade or fewer new branches for height and depth. When a new side branch appears in a few years that redirects the primary growth pattern, remember this year.

Much of the time all we can do is react to the harsh reality of drastic temperature swings. Severe pruning may be necessary to eliminate dead branches. Entire plants may die and need to be replaced. Low crop yield shouldn't be a surprise.

It's difficult watching the inevitable decline, damage, or death of a plant. I wonder what effect today's cold will have on tomorrow's growth. Having no control over the situation is uncomfortable for a gardener.

All gardener's in cold regions have and will experience this problem, probably more-so in the future. Knowing that others are going through the same dilemma may be slightly helpful, but certainly not comforting.